Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). This causes blood vessels to dilate, and the skin may feel warm and flushed. Contrary to popular belief, individuals undergoing hypnosis usually have clear memories of the hypnotic experience and are in control of their own behaviors. Why do we devote so much time to sleeping? Ahallucinogenis one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences (Figure 4.18). In this section, we will discuss each of these stages of sleep and their associated patterns of brain wave activity. These will soon, in all ordinary cases, subdue the most distressing symptoms, and effect a perfect cure in a day or two. Lucid dreamsare dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. These include daydreaming, intoxication, and unconsciousness due to anesthesia. The crisis actually began in the 1990s, when pharmaceutical companies began mass-marketing pain-relieving opioid drugs like OxyContin with the promise (now known to be false) that they were non-addictive. As an individual continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity. As he went to investigate what was going on, he was met by a group of police officers who arrested him for the murder of his wife (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). Depending on the population and sleep disorder being studied, between 30% and 50% of the population suffers from a sleep disorder at some point in their lives (Bixler, Kales, Soldatos, Kaels, & Healey, 1979; Hossain & Shapiro, 2002; Ohayon, 1997, 2002; Ohayon & Roth, 2002). While caffeine may have some indirect effects on dopamine neurotransmission, its primary mechanism of action involves antagonizing adenosine activity (Porkka-Heiskanen, 2011). Add a comment. Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been demonstrated to be quite effective in treating insomnia (Savard, Simard, Ivers, & Morin, 2005; Williams, Roth, Vatthauer, & McCrae, 2013). There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. High doses can cause death due to respiratory depression. Recent adaptations (e.g., Hobson, 2002) continue to update the theory based on accumulating evidence. Many of these drugs act as agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system. People sleep better in cooler temperatures. If someone stays awake for 48 consecutive hours, they could start to hallucinate. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the neuronal synapse. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. Psychological dependence on these drugs is also possible. Nicotine is most commonly used in the form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco; therefore, there is a tremendous interest in developing effective smoking cessation techniques. For example, irritability, distractibility, and impairments in cognitive and moral judgment can occur with fewer than four hours of sleep. As mentioned earlier, lack of sleep can result in decreased mental alertness and cognitive function. Some circadian rhythms play a role in changes in our state of consciousness. Restless leg syndrome is quite common and has been associated with a number of other medical diagnoses, such as chronic kidney disease and diabetes (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Sleep regulationrefers to the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world. For example, withdrawal from sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation. The participant is told to be open to the process of hypnosis, trust the hypnotist and let go. As part of treatment, the sleeping environment is often modified to make it a safer place for those suffering from RBD (Zangini, Calandra-Buonaura, Grimaldi, & Cortelli, 2011). Recommendations like these have helped to decrease the number of infant deaths from SIDS in recent years (Mitchell, 2009; Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 2011). D) the demographic characteristics of the person C) the severity and duration of the problem. Although she had been taking a prescription antidepressant, her symptoms of depression continued to worsen and she began to suffer physically, displaying significant warning signs of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Jet lag is a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. Melatonin is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and the immune system (Hardeland et al., 2006). To date, people have used a variety ofnicotinereplacement therapies in addition to various psychotherapeutic options in an attempt to discontinue their use of tobacco products. Dreams and their associated meanings vary across different cultures and periods of time. Avoid alcohol, cigarettes, caffeine, and heavy meals before bed. While we all experience altered states of consciousness in the form of sleep on a regular basis, some people use drugs and other substances that result in altered states of consciousness as well. However, for some, its not because of all-night partying or late-night study sessions. She indicated that she had fallen asleep at inappropriate or dangerous times, including while eating, while socializing with friends, and while driving her car. A few such benefits listed by the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) include maintaining healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor coordination, as well as a number of benefits related to cognition and memory formation. Other depressants include barbiturates and benzodiazepines. With repeated use of many central nervous system depressants, such as alcohol, a person becomes physically dependent upon the substance and will exhibit signs of both tolerance and withdrawal. Brainwave activity changes dramatically across the different stages of sleep. On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on a project at work. Generally, treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). Research shows that the most severe effects of sleep deprivation occur when a person stays awake for more than 24 hours (Killgore & Weber, 2014; Killgore et al., 2007), or following repeated nights with fewer than four hours in bed (Wickens, Hutchins, Lauk, Seebook, 2015). Users can experience physical symptoms that include nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). The freebase version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable version of the drug. Withdrawal from opioids includes pain, which patients often misinterpret as pain caused by the problem that led to the original prescription, and which motivates patients to continue using the drugs. When he told me, I made him go see the college therapist. Whilecaffeineis generally considered a relatively safe drug, high blood levels of caffeine can result in insomnia, agitation, muscle twitching, nausea, irregular heartbeat, and even death (Reissig, Strain, & Griffiths, 2009; Wolt, Ganetsky, & Babu, 2012). Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. According to the dissociation view, hypnosis is effectively a dissociated state of consciousness, much like our earlier example where you may drive to work, but you are only minimally aware of the process of driving because your attention is focused elsewhere. Abnormal Motor Behavior. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). The brains clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as thesuprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). An important difference between mood disorders and normal mood fluctuation is: A) the particular medication used to treat the problem. While hypnosis may be useful in enhancing memory or a skill, such enhancements are very modest in nature (Raz, 2011). Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) serves as the brains clock mechanism. Melatonin release is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light. The fifth edition of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,Fifth Edition(DSM-5) is used by clinicians to diagnose individuals suffering from various psychological disorders. Users experience increased energy, feelings of pleasure, and emotional warmth. Homeostatic regulation of sleep is evidenced by sleep rebound following sleep deprivation. This pattern of brain wave activity resembles that of someone who is very relaxed, yet awake. Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred (Arnulf, 2012). One way that this happens involves traveling across multiple time zones. Weakness and fatigue. How does hypnosis work? (a) A period of rapid eye movement is marked by the short red line segment. Mescaline and LSD are serotonin agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. Increased alertness, mild euphoria, decreased appetite in low doses. These effects can occur as a function of accumulated sleep debt or in response to more acute periods of sleep deprivation. The clock sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina. (credit: Laurie Avocado). Thus we sleep in safe areas to reduce the chance of harm. When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate a sleep debt. The axons of light-sensitive neurons in the retina provide information to the SCN based on the amount of light present, allowing this internal clock to be synchronized with the outside world (Klein, Moore, & Reppert, 1991; Welsh, Takahashi, & Kay, 2010) (Figure 4.3). As already mentioned, the hypothalamus contains the SCNthe biological clock of the bodyin addition to other nuclei that, in conjunction with the thalamus, regulate slow-wave sleep. Perhaps our ancestors spent extended periods of time asleep to reduce attention to themselves from potential predators. Which of the following is true regarding patient adherence: d - all of the above (a - the average adherence rate for taking medication to treat acute illness is about 67%, b - adherence to taking medicine . Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. Following the initial rush, users experience 46 hours of going on the nod, alternating between conscious and semiconscious states. By the end of this section, you will be able to: Consciousnessdescribes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. Historically, hypnosis has been viewed with some suspicion because of its portrayal in popular media and entertainment (Figure 4.20). Sleep debt and sleep deprivation have significant negative psychological and physiological consequencesFigure 4.5. The brain waves associated with this stage of sleep are very similar to those observed when a person is awake, as shown inFigure 4.11, and this is the period of sleep in which dreaming occurs. (a) This is a statue of a meditating Buddha, representing one of the many religious traditions of which meditation plays a part. Unexplained hemorrhaging, bleeding or bruising. The typical positive symptoms of schizophrenia , such as hallucinatory experiences or fixed delusional beliefs, tend to be very upsetting and disruptivenot a positive experience at all for you or someone you care about who is experiencing them. (Jayanthi & Ramamoorthy, 2005; Rothman, Blough, & Baumann, 2007). Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. Caffeine is another stimulant drug. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform meditation alone. In general, these drugs are not thought to possess the same sort of abuse potential as other classes of drugs discussed in this section. Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). This chapter will discuss states of consciousness with a particular emphasis on sleep. . Causes. Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, & Lichstein, 2008). Whether lark, owl, or somewhere in between, there are situations in which a persons circadian clock gets out of synchrony with the external environment. Again, this is an intuitive and appealing explanation for why we sleep. The FDAs 2013 recommendation for tighter controls on opiate prescriptions left many patients addicted to prescription drugs like OxyContin unable to obtain legitimate prescriptions. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. Feeling tired. (2005) found that sleepwalking was not alleviated with the use of benzodiazepines. Despite the prevalence of caffeine use and the large number of people who confess to suffering from caffeine addiction, this was the first published description of soda dependence appearing in scientific literature. In fact, it has been suggested that there is no reason to think that energetic demands could not be addressed with periods of rest and inactivity (Frank, 2006; Rial et al., 2007), and some research has actually found a negative correlation between energetic demands and the amount of time spent sleeping (Capellini, Barton, McNamara, Preston, & Nunn, 2008). The different stages of sleep will be identified, and sleep disorders will be described. . To prevent withdrawal, many people turned to cheaper heroin, which could be bought for $5 a dose or less. Table 4.1shows the new recommendations, which describe sleep durations that are recommended, may be appropriate, and not recommended. Keep your bedroom temperature between 60 and 67 degrees. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. It seems like everyone knows a friend, family member, or neighbor who has died of an overdose. The heart rate slows . It is also common for these types of drugs to cause hallucinations of body sensations (e.g., feeling as if you are a giant) and a skewed perception of the passage of time. During sleep, the pituitary gland secretes both FSH and LH which are important in regulating the reproductive system (Christensen et al., 2012; Sofikitis et al., 2008). A person who has a substance use disorder often uses more of the substance than they originally intended to and continues to use that substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep. This is similar to the kind of paralysis experienced by healthy individuals during REM sleep (Burgess & Scammell, 2012; Hishikawa & Shimizu, 1995; Luppi et al., 2011). 1. Loss of appetite. Instead, sleep is composed of several different stages that can be differentiated from one another by the patterns of brain wave activity that occur during each stage. This often results in sleeping problems, and it can lead to signs of depression and anxiety. Methamphetamine in its smokable form, often called crystal meth due to its resemblance to rock crystal formations, is highly addictive. 0. Upon admission to an outpatient clinic for treatment of mood disorders, she met all of the diagnostic criteria for substance dependence and was advised to dramatically limit her caffeine intake. Given that withdrawal from a drug often involves an experience opposite to the effect of the drug, it should be no surprise that opioid withdrawal resembles a severe case of the flu. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? Common definitions of health include: a. optimal weight and endurance. Popular portrayals of hypnosis have led to some widely-held misconceptions. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. In Hilgards experiments, he induced participants into a state of hypnosis, and placed their arms into ice water. Loss of appetite. A person with asleep debtdoes not get sufficient sleep on a chronic basis. By analyzing dreams, Freud thought people could increase self-awareness and gain valuable insight to help them deal with the problems they faced in their lives. We also alter our consciousness through the use of various psychoactive drugs. Medical marijuana is marijuana that is prescribed by a doctor for the treatment of a health condition. Other drugs, including the opioid buprenorphine, have also been used to alleviate symptoms of opiate withdrawal. However, all of their somnambulistic patients who also suffered from sleep-related breathing problems showed a marked decrease in sleepwalking when their breathing problems were effectively treated. Although individuals suffering from night terrors appear to be awake, they generally have no memories of the events that occurred, and attempts to console them are ineffective. Insomnia, a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders. While many users snort cocaine, intravenous injection and inhalation (smoking) are also common. While medical marijuana laws have been passed on a state-by-state basis, federal laws still classify this as an illicit substance, making conducting research on the potentially beneficial medicinal uses of marijuana problematic. While "internal state" or impulsivity are terms more generally discussed in psychology or neuroscience, the concept is familiar to anyone. While this is an intuitive explanation of sleep, there is little research that supports this explanation. The three types of sleep apnea are central apnea, obstructive apnea (OSA), and a mixture of central and obstructive apnea. These changes in brain wave activity can be visualized using EEG and are distinguished from one another by both the frequency and amplitude of brain waves (Figure 4.7). Physiologically, the body can become addicted to opiate drugs in less than a week, including when taken as prescribed. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. We might even describe consciousness as a continuum that ranges from full awareness to a deep sleep. Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression. Complications. While it is probably the most commonly used drug in the world, the potency of this particular drug pales in comparison to the other stimulant drugs described in this section. Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the social role of a hypnotized person. However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. Opioids have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. Moreover, these impairments become more severe as the amount of sleep deprivation increases (Alhola & Polo-Kantola, 2007). A sleep deprived individual generally will fall asleep more quickly than if she were not sleep deprived. You don't have to be a psychologist to know that conditions like hunger or fatigue have an impact on thinking and decision-making; these are examples of internal states. There may be many factors that contribute to insomnia, including age, drug use, exercise, mental status, and bedtime routines. Although there are a number of different techniques in use, the central feature of all meditation is clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus (Chen et al., 2013; Lang et al., 2012). Some can cause heightened sensitivity to physical stimuli. As we move intostage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. In recent years, methamphetamine (meth) use has become increasingly widespread. Sleep apnea is much more common in overweight people and is often associated with loud snoring. Rotating shift workrefers to a work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis. However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem. Sleep apneais defined by episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. 1. With excessive alcohol use, a person might experience a complete loss of consciousness and/or difficulty remembering events that occurred during a period of intoxication (McKim & Hancock, 2013). Stick to a sleep schedule, even on the weekends. If you lie down to take a nap and fall asleep very easily, chances are you may have sleep debt. They named each of the three states: "Close," when a male is closer than average to a female and approaching her slowly; "Chasing," when he is approaching quickly; and "Whatever," when he is facing away from her and moving slowly. While we certainly welcome the convenience of having the darkness lit up, we also suffer the consequences of reduced amounts of sleep because we are more active during the nighttime hours than our ancestors were. Two sleeping children are depicted in this 1895 oil painting titled. Caffeine is found in many common medicines (such as weight loss drugs), beverages, foods, and even cosmetics (Herman & Herman, 2013). While people are often unaware of their sleep apnea, they are keenly aware of some of the adverse consequences of insufficient sleep. Several of the nurses interviewed commented that their work schedules affected their relationships with their family. When we are very young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping. In such instances, REM rebound may actually represent an adaptive response to stress in non-depressed individuals by suppressing the emotional salience of aversive events that occurred in wakefulness (Suchecki, Tiba, & Machado, 2012). Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., secobarbital, pentobarbital), Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax). Thepineal gland, an endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep (Hardeland, Pandi-Perumal, & Cardinali, 2006). Which of the following was an advance in science and medicine in the18th and 19th centuries? In the variation of mindful meditation, the meditators attention is focused on some internal process or an external object (Zeidan, Grant, Brown, McHaffie, & Coghill, 2012). In addition to withdrawal, many individuals who are diagnosed with substance use disorders will also develop tolerance to these substances. Latent content, on the other hand, refers to the hidden meaning of a dream. This will be followed by brief descriptions of the effects of some of the more well-known drugs commonly used today. Alan Hobson, a neuroscientist, is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. . Surprisingly, sleep apnea may exacerbate cardiovascular disease (Snchez-de-la-Torre, Campos-Rodriguez, & Barb, 2012). Complete the following multiple choice quiz covering chapters 1, 6, and 9. A) a mole that looks cancerous B) nasal congestion C) change in heart rate D) issues with breathing Which of the following American health care systems is most known for requiring a referral from a primary care doctor in order to see a specialist? Rather, the ISS r ecognizes mixed states and depressive symptoms during manic and hypomanic episodes. In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide (Aquina, Marques-Baptista, Bridgeman, & Merlin, 2009; Casati, Sedefov, & Pfeiffer-Gerschel, 2012). Another evolutionary hypothesis of sleep holds that our sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness. When we do this, we often experience jet lag. By the late 19th century, German psychiatrist SigmundFreudhad become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotists words or a ticking watch. Body temperature rises throughout the waking day, peaking in the afternoon, and falls during sleep with the lowest point occurring during the very early morning hours. Gastrointestinal symptoms including abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. This is illustrated by McCartys (2010) case study of a 50-year-old woman who sought help for the excessive sleepiness during normal waking hours that she had experienced for several years. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, andinsomnia(i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a months time) (Roth, 2007). Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). The low cost coupled with lower risk of overdose than with opiate drugs is making crystal meth a popular choice among drug users today (NIDA, 2019). Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Morphine, Oxycodone, Vicoden, methadone, and other prescription pain relievers, Decreased pain, pupil dilation, decreased gut motility, decreased respiratory function. One or two nights of sleep difficulty is not unusual, but if you experience anything more than that, you should seek a doctors advice. There are individual differences in regard to our sleep-wake cycle. Some research suggests that species that face higher predatory risks sleep fewer hours than other species (Capellini et al., 2008), while other researchers suggest there is no relationship between the amount of time a given species spends in deep sleep and its predation risk (Lesku, Roth, Amlaner, & Lima, 2006). Acircadian rhythmis a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours. During this time, an individuals heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. These components include: These steps are conducive to being open to the heightened suggestibility of hypnosis. The chapter will close with discussions of altered states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, and meditation. If we have biological rhythms, then is there some sort ofbiological clock? Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. 22. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010).

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